FURTHER INVESTIGATION
When the major concepts of Feng Shui are compared with the modern evolutionary theory of human habitat selection, the importance of Feng Shui for the successful survival of ancient China might be revealed. In order to better understand Feng Shui, the author lists 22 primary criteria for an ideal location. These criteria will be examined from the perspective of modern science. In general, this approach can be, considered as ecology or adaptive evolution, which emphasizes that ideal habitats “enable the animal to do the right thing at the right time and place, where right means such as to improve fitness” or survival (Staddon 1987, 103). In so doing, a deeper insight into uncovering the implicit evolutionary/ ecological values of Feng Shui might be gained. The following are the FengShui criteria with their interpretation in terms of ecology/ adaptive evolution indicated with an asterisk.
1) Hsuan Wu (black turtle) should be magnificent and located in the north. Its features should be undulated and winding like those of a lively dragon, which can change its form at will.
* An ideal Feng Shui site is located in a mountainous area that has natural slopes for water drainage. It is on the slope in front of a northern high mountain, which can block cold and dry winds.
2) The greater the number of mountains or hills (white tiger, blue dragon, front hills, and other protecting hills) surrounding the location, the more protection against the loss of Ch'i resulting in better Feng Shui.
* The surrounding mountains form a natural shelter and defense
against hazards and attacks. They also define a clear territory.
3) All the surrounding mountains and hills should curve inward to Ming Tang, the relatively flat grassland at the center.
* The configuration of winding inward mountains and hills
guarantees the central area will not be on the route of water
drainage.
4) The site selection should avoid stony or solitary mountains as well as those that are prone to having landslides.
* Stony mountains lack a variety of vegetation due to less
nutrition and fine soil. They are difficult for farming and
construction. Solitary mountains do not have any surrounding
protection and may lack ecological diversity. A place that is prone
to having landslides shows potential uncertainty and hazard.
5) The site location should avoid mountain peaks.
* Mountain peaks are exposed to strong winds, sunlight, and
detection by an enemy. They also have less available resources,
such as plants, animals, and water in particular.
6) All the mountains and hills should have thriving vegetation growing on them demonstrating their great inner Ch'i.
* Thriving vegetation signals the availability of necessities, such
as food, water, raw materials, and shelter or concealment.
- 7) The proper height of An Shan (near front hill), should be roughly in the range of the height between the human forehead to the chest, as viewed from Hsueh (the central spot of Ming Tang).
- 8) If the mountains or hills (white tiger, blue dragon, and front hills) are near to Ming Tang, they should be relatively small. Likewise, they should be larger if they are more distant.
- 9) If black turtle, white tiger, blue dragon, and front hills are high, the location of Hsueh (the central spot of Ming Tang) should also be high. The reverse also holds true. If those mountains or hills are low, Hsueh should be located on a low spot.
- 10) If any one of those mountains or hills (black turtle, white tiger, blue dragon, and front hills) is higher than the others, the location of Hsueh should be farther away from it.
- 11) If An Shan or Chao Shan are low, the Hsueh should also be in a low place. Similarly, if those mountains or hills are high, the location of Hsueh should be high.
* The proper distance, height, and location between the
surrounding mountains and Ming Tang and its center, Hsueh, as
dictated by these criteria, provide such places to enable the
inhabitants to have a wide view but not to be seen by outsiders.
These criteria can also be regarded as the practical guidelines
of achieving an ideal balance between prospect and refuge as
proposed by Appleton (1975).
12) Ming Tang should be relatively flat grassland, which is moderate in size.
* This grassland on a gradual slope has good drainage and is easy
for farming, grazing, and buildings. In addition, the biomass and
manure produced by grazing animals on grassland are also higher
than in forest (Orians 1986). And, more importantly, “much
of the productivity is found within two meters of the ground
where it is directly accessible to people and to grazing and
browsing animals” (Orians and Heerwagen 1992, 558). A
grassland moderate in size offers the minimum resources and
space needed for at least a single person or family.
13) A river curving inwards should flow between Ming Tang and An Shan.
* “In a meandering channel, flow patterns alternately
transport sediment from the concave bank and deposit it near the
convex bank. This erosional and depositional process is the way the
stream dissipates its energy” (Peterson et al. 1992, 301). An
ideal Feng Shui site located at the side of the convex bank of a
river prevents it from being continually eroded by the flow, which
results in potential hazard in the future.
14) The river should not be noisy, muddy, rapid, or yellow in color.
* A muddy or yellow river indicates the water probably is polluted
or has a high concentration of sediment or algae which is not
suitable for drinking, irrigating, bathing, or even washing. It may
also imply low food productivity for aquaculture. A rapidly flowing
stream with noise indicates a huge amount of rushing water, which
may cause flooding or an erosion hazard and is dangerous for
transportation or wading.
15) The orientation of the river should not be directly toward Ming Tang.
* A place that is directly facing a river may suffer the potential
threat of erosion or flooding.
16) A river with many curves, or a great quantity of water, maximizes Feng Shui since it can prevent Ch'i from blowing away and accumulates it instead.
* “In comparison with the habitat conditions prevailing
within a straight channel, a meandering channel is physically
far more diverse and can therefore sustain more complex faunal
and floral communities, which in turn are an integral component
of the self-cleaning ability of a stream system” (Peterson
et al. 1992, 301). Thus, a river with many curves indicates high
food productivity for aquaculture and a diverse, stable ecosystem.
Similarly, a great quantity of water provides sufficient resources,
such as water and aquatic plants and animals.
17) The sites where the river enters and exits should be surrounded by mountains or hills (Shui Kou Shan).
* The river entrance and exit surrounded by mountains or hills
form security gates. These natural security gates allow the
inhabitants to perform surveillance of visitors and to have
control of river transportation.
18) The entrance of the river should be wide, but the exit of the river should be narrow and invisible from the central site.
* A wide river entrance, like a front door of a house, is
formally used by the residents and visitors coming in and going
out. An invisible river exit, like a back door, is a private and
convenient route only for the dweller. When an impending threat
is detected, this hidden exit can be used as a safe and fast
escape.
19) The current of the river should flow towards Hsuan Wu (black turtle).
* The river flowing into, through, and out of the Feng Shui site
brings floating wood and boats to the site. In addition, when the
resident is in danger, he or she can quickly escape from the site
on the river to deep mountains.
20) If the river or lake is on the right, Hsueh should also be on the right side. The reverse also holds true.
* This criterion makes Hsueh not too far away from the water
resource. Therefore, the benefits of this resource, such as
increased humidity, decreased temperature, purified air,
modified microclimate, and availability of water and aquatic
plants and animals for everyday life, can be easily accessible to
the dweller.
21) The quantity of water should be positively correlated to the magnitude of Hsuan Wu (black turtle). Thus, Yang, the water, and Yin, the mountains, can maintain balance and harmony.
* If Hsuan Wu (black turtle) is magnificent, the relatively flat
area in front of it tends to be large. The mountainous areas and
the plains have large spaces for human and other species' habitats,
therefore, a large quantity of water is necessary to support them.
22) The Feng Shui site should be oriented towards the South.
* An ideal Feng Shui location faces the South, providing a longer period of front light and more sunlight than does any other aspect. Plentiful sunlight raises the temperature, and together with the magnificent northern mountain, Hsuan Wu—which blocks the cold northern wind and snow—reduces the possibility of the accumulation of snow in winter. In summer, sunlight increases evaporation by the river, which reduces temperatures and enhances air circulation.DISCUSSION
Based on thousands of years of observing their surroundings, and the accumulated experience of struggles for survival, the ancient Chinese developed Feng Shui to search for suitable sites of settlement and a harmony between people and nature as well as among people. The folk wisdom of Feng Shui simultaneously considers both natural and cultural elements. Regarding the natural factors, the considerations of Feng Shui include topography, hydrology, climate, ecology, and visual quality (Han 1994). Since Feng Shui is such a complex and integrated approach and is documented in such a holistic way, it is no wonder that it is so difficult to understand. As a result, people are confused by the simplicity of Feng Shui and therefore regard it as superstition. Nonetheless, the long history of the wide application of Feng Shui has proved its usefulness and validity at least to some degree. It has been proposed that using FengShui to find a steady and sustainable location for settlement contributed significantly to the successful survival of the ancient Chinese and long-lasting Chinese agricultural civilization (Yu 1992). However, detailed investigation of Feng Shui might further uncover its implicit value and therefore reduce the unearthly aura long imputed to it.
Feng Shui is a holistic approach to site selection. Thus, comparing it to one school of modern theory, or examining it from one perspective, cannot fully uncover its characteristics. Nevertheless, through a detailed approach, which investigates a complicated issue or phenomenon by studying its smaller or simpler parts, researchers probably can obtain deeper insights into Feng Shui step by step; and eventually achieve a comprehensive understanding. Although this method of detail has advantages, it has weaknesses as well. In order to have a full picture of Feng Shui, a broad range of disciplines and more holistic perspectives, such as geography, should be applied together.
Some people may argue that examining Feng Shui from the standpoint of Western knowledge ignores cultural context, which probably is true. Thus, this article tends to focus more on physical rather than cultural issues. Although the meanings attached to, or the perceptions of, these features are still not identical due to cultural differences, the fundamental functions or mechanisms of these physical features are similar or the same. Also, Feng Shui is assumed to be applicable to diverse geographical and temporal scales (Skinner 1982; Xu 1990; Yu 1994). In addition, the evolutionary theory of human habitat selection proposes that because these landscape features are so crucial to human survival, through the evolution of countless millennia, people have formed a biological predisposition toward these features. Therefore, these genetically innate responses to these features are universal and cross-cultural (Ulrich 1983, 1993; Orians and Heerwagen 1992). From this perspective, demonstration that Feng Shui is highly compatible with modern evolutionary theory should not be a big surprise. The findings of modern evolutionary theory provide a scientific basis forFeng Shui. In turn, Feng Shui exists across cultural, spatial, and temporal dimensions, illustrating the underlying notion of the evolutionary adaptiveness of humans.
The ways of human adaptation to their surroundings reflect and manifest themselves in human behavior (Plog and Bates 1980; Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman 1981). The unique Feng Shui concept of Ch'i has profoundly influenced many aspects of the Chinese. Given that the most ideal situation of Ch'i is harmony and balance, the worldview of the Chinese is a mediated equilibrium; anything should not be too much or too little. Since the origin of all life is the same source of Ch'i, all humans, other species, and environments are equal. No one is superior or inferior to the other, and all should coexist together in peace and harmony (Han 1994; Yu 1994; Xu 1998). Also, given that ascendants and descendants share the same Ch'i strain; kinship, family, respect for the elderly, and ancestor worship are valued by the Chinese because their fates are closely interrelated (Yu 1994). As a result, Feng Shui has a profound influence on the Chinese in life values, individual and group identity, social interaction, and group and national ideology (Freedman 1966; Yang 1967; Feuchtwang 1974; Bennett 1978; Nemeth 1987). Since the Chinese believed, and still believe, that Feng Shui can bring people harmony, which results in good luck (Xu 1998), Feng Shui is still very popular in Chinese societies worldwide (Rossbach 1983; Yu 1994).
The clearly defined territory composed by the surrounding mountains and rivers at Feng Shui locations reinforces the closeness or connectedness of families or communities, which share similar destinies, beliefs, or cultures. Hence, a cultural domain and a physical space coincide perfectly and form an “eco-cultural region” (Dasmann 1985). This results in not only an intimate understanding, relationship, and interdependence among the inhabitants, but also between the dwellers and their surroundings (Yu 1994). As the territoriality, the identity of place, and the sense of community have developed, any inhabitants or outsiders who violate the commonly shared cultural value or abuse the scarce or sacred natural resources will become the target of public criticism and will be defended (Yu 1992, 1994). These prudent behaviors in terms of cultural realm and resource utilization have contributed significantly to the stability and the sustainability of the agricultural societies in Mainland China (Michell 1973; Skinner 1982; Yu 1992, 1994). That is, natural selection should favor species that can adapt environments accordingly and use resources discreetly (Geist 1978; Gadgil 1985). In line with Spirn's (1988) notion that “It is nature and culture together, as interacting processes, that render a place particularly,” FengShui, which integrates the natural and the cultural aspects so intimately and interdependently has played an important role in the unique and long-lasting Chinese civilization.
According to the evolutionary theory of human habitat selection, people have evolved a biological predisposition for certain specific landscape features that are crucial to survival and reproductive success. This genetically innate predisposition, reflecting behavioral mechanisms of habitat selection, may imply that there is a prototype of an ideal setting that crosses cultures. The savannas of tropical Africa are the presumed sites of human origins, which offer rich, accessible resources and low risks for large terrestrial, omnivorous primates such as the ancestors of humans (Orians and Heerwagen 1992). Balling and Falk (1982) hypothesize that because of their prolonged evolutionary history in the savannas, human beings have developed psychological mechanisms that help adapt responses to savanna-like habitats. At the same time, many studies have demonstrated that a savanna-like setting is consistently preferred over others regardless of cultural differences (Balling and Falk 1982; Ulrich 1983, 1993; Yi 1992). Thus, savannalike environments might be considered as a prototype of ideal habitat in the era of hunting and gathering.
Diamond (1993) points out that our ancestors left savanna environments at least one million years ago. Perhaps this amount of time allowed human beings to have evolved a predisposition for a new habitat. In Mainland China, an ideal location for settlement as depicted in Feng Shui, is a semi enclosed plain surrounded by mountains and rivers. Similar requirements of site selection are found in India and Indonesia (Java). This configuration manifested in architectural form is shown as the traditional Chinese or Hindu courtyard house. Meanwhile, the ancient Westerners also had an analogous imagination of an ideal settlement. Plato described Atlantis in detail in his Crito. Surprisingly, the landscape features of this legendary western city match well with those of a preferred habitat required by Asians. As a savanna-like environment might be regarded as the prototype of human habitat in the hunting and gathering era, arguably, a Feng Shui-like setting might be considered as the prototype in the agricultural era. Recently research has shown that savanna-like landscapes are preferred by subjects with various cultural and/or ethnic backgrounds (e.g., Balling and Falk 1982; Ulrich 1983, 1993; Yi 1992). This finding is regarded the support for the notion that people have a genetic predisposition toward savannas where their ancestors had evolved (Balling and Falk 1982; Ulrich 1983; Orians and Heerwagen 1992). Similarly, two studies have shown that good Feng Shui locations are preferred by college students with different cultural and/or ethnic backgrounds (Han 1994, 1999).However, more studies are needed to examine whether Feng Shui-like landscapes are genetically favored by human beings. Thus, the universal practicality of Feng Shui and the notion of Feng Shui being the prototype of human habitat in the agricultural era can be further investigated.
Finding a suitable habitat, which can offer resources for different activities over time, is difficult for any organism. Specifically, both the current and the future states of the habitat need to be considered in order to guarantee prolonged survival and reproductive success.As a result, organisms evolve to use features, which include indicators of current states and predictors of future states. It has been found that some animals often use features that do not directly affect immediate success. Likewise, this phenomenon might be found in human behavior (after Orians and Heerwagen 1992). In ancient China finding appropriate locations for settlement was the main function of Feng Shui. For resolving such complex challenges, it was probably the simplest, safest, and most convenient method available at that time. It is reasonable to assume that Feng Shui takes both current and future conditions into account. Since FengShui is already a complicated and holistic approach, the considerations of this foresight may result in even greater difficulty of understanding it. The invisible, untouchable, and tasteless energy of all life, Ch'i is probably one abstract predictor that has not been fully realized and understood. This unique Chinese concept Ch'i, probably is an extremely simplified summary of the holistic human interaction with people, nature, and the cosmos, which cannot be explained by any single compartmentalized view of knowledge (Han 1994; Yu 1994). A deeper understanding of Ch'i may contribute to the welfare of all human beings.
CONCLUSIONIn this article, Feng Shui is compared with and investigated under the modern evolutionary theory of human habitat selection. The results indicate that they have many similarities. Evolutionary theory argues that an environment which can offer necessities of life, low risks, and information encouraging exploration will be preferred by humans, because this specific setting facilitates human survival, functioning, and well-being (Orians and Heerwagen 1992). Evolutionary researchers have identified certain landscape features signaling a suitable habitat. These features; such as a semi-enclosed spatial configuration; depth cues; focal points; even-ground texture; water and vegetation presence; deflected vistas; landmarks; multiple concealment and escape routes; elevation changes; and mixed areas (Ulrich 1983; Orians and Heerwagen 1992; Yi 1992), can also be easily found in an ideal Feng Shui location. Meanwhile, the primary criteria of an ideal Feng Shui site under further investigation manifest their values and importance in terms of ecology/adaptive evolution. Moreover, given that human adaptation to their surroundings reflects and manifests itself in culture (Plog and Bates, 1980; Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman 1981), Feng Shui has been profoundly interwoven with Chinese lives and societies (Yu 1994; Xu 1998).The perfect coincidence of, and the close interdependence between, the cultural value and the physical space encouraged by FengShui have significantly contributed to a stable and sustainable agricultural civilization in Mainland China (Yu 1992, 1994).
Some Chinese and Westerners view Feng Shui as common sense (Eitel 1873), experiences based on natural laws (Johnson 1881; Schlegel 1898), or mere superstition. Others argue that Feng Shui integrates both the rational-logical and the irrational-illogical in order to cope with reality (Feutchwang 1974; Rossbach 1983). Nevertheless, simply treating something not yet understood—without any attempts at further research—as superstition is not a scientific approach (Xu 1990) and cannot lead to truth. In this article, through comparison and examination, the findings of modern theories and knowledge can provide a sound scientific basis for Feng Shui and demonstrate that Feng Shui is not pure superstition. Its implicit simplicity, which causes it to be misunderstood, can be dismissed by objective and systematic studies. On the other hand, the long history and broad application of Feng Shui is a valuable resource that can be used to introduce and test new concepts or theories. A meeting of ancient eastern and modern western approaches might provide new insight into habitat selection overlooked or not addressed by current disciplines. Only a synthesis of diverse approaches, such as qualitative and quantitative, experiential and scientific, and compartmentalized and holistic, can achieve a more comprehensive understanding of our surrounding landscapes (Zube 1984; Xu 1990; Han 1994; Yu 1994).
Copyright © 2002 by Oklahoma State University
DIAGRAM: The basic pattern of the ideal Feng Shui location.
REFERENCESBalling, John D., and John H. Falk. 1982. Development of Visual Preference for Natural Environments. Environment and Behavior.14(1): 5–28.
Bennet, Steven. J. 1978. Patterns of the Sky and Earth: The Chinese Science of Applied Cosmology. Chinese Science. 3: 1–26.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luigi, and Marucs W. Feldman. 1981. Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach. Princeton:Princeton University Press.
Chiou, Shang-Chia, and Ramesh Krishnamurti. 1997. Unraveling Feng Shui. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 24(4):549–572.
Dasmann, Raymond F. 1985. Achieving the Sustainable Use of Species and Ecosystem. Landscape Planning. 12(3): 211–219.
Diamond, J. 1993. New Guineans and Their Natural World. In The Biophilia Hypothesis, edited by S. R. Kellert, and E. O. Wilson, pp.251–271. Washington, DC: Island Press/Shearwater Books.
Eitel, Ernest J. 1873. Feng Shui: The Rudiments of Natural Science in China. Hong Kong: Lane, Crawford & Co.
Geist, Valerius. 1978. Life Strategies, Human Evolution, Environmental Design: Toward a Biological Theory of Health. New York:Springer-Verlag.
Gibson, James J. 1958. Perception of Distance and Space in the Open Air. In Readings in Perception. Edited by David Beardslee, and Michael Wertheimer, pp. 415–431. Princeton: Van Nostrand.
Goldstein, E. Bruce. 1996. Sensation and Perception. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
Han, Ke-Tsung. 1994. Feng Shui and Landscape. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
-----, and Amita Sinha. 1996. An Empirical Study of Feng Shui in Landscape. Environment: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies.23(3): 36–49.
-----. 1999. Empirical Testing of Good Feng Shui Sites in Terms of Preferences. In Proceedings of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA 30). Edited by.
Hu, Dan. 1994. A Human-Ecology Approach to Environmental Design: An Integrative Human-Ecology Design Derived from Chinese Agricultural Culture Experiences. Journal of Environmental Science. 6(4): 478–486.
Johnson, Samuel. 1877. Oriental Religions and their Relation to Universal Religion: China. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company.
Kaplan, Rachel, Stephen Kaplan, and Terry Brown. 1989. Environmental Preference: A Comparison of Four Domains of Predictors.Environment and Behavior. 21(5): 509–530.
Michell, J. 1973. Foreword to the Second Edition of Feng Shui. In Feng Shui. Edited by Ernest J. Eitel. Kingston Press.
Nemeth, David J. 1987. The Architecture of Ideology, Neo-Confucian Imprinting on Cheju Island, Korea. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Orians, Gordon H. 1980. Habitat Selection: General Theory and Application to Human Behavior. In The Evolution of Human Social Behavior. Edited by Joan S. Lockard, pp 49–66. New York: Elsevier North Holland.
-----. 1986. An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach to Landscape Aesthetics. In Landscape Meanings and Values. Edited by Edmund C. Penning-Rowsell, and David Lowenthal. London: Alien & Unwin.
-----, and Judith H. Heerwagen. 1992. Evolved Responses to Landscapes. In The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. Edited by Jerome H. Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby, pp. 555–579. New York: Oxford University Press.
Peterson, R. C., B. M. Peterson, and J. Lacoursiere. 1992. A Building-Block Model for Stream Restoration. In River Conservation and Management. Edited by P. J. Boon, P. Calow, and G. E. Petts, pp. 293–309. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Schiffman, Harvey R. 1982. Sensation and Perception: An Integrated Approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Schlegel, Gustaaf. 1898. Critique on De Groot (1897) the Religious System of China. T'oung Pao. 1(9): 65–78.
Skinner, Stephen. 1982. The Living Earth Manual of Feng-Shui: Chinese Geomancy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Spirn, A. W. 1988. The Poetics of City and Nature: Toward a New Aesthetic for Urban Design. Landscape Journal. 2(2): 108–126.
Staddon, John E. R. 1987. Optimality Theory and Behavior. In The Latest on the Best: Essays on Evolution and Optimality. Edited by John Dupre, pp. 179–198. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Ulrich, Roger S. 1979. Visual Landscapes and Psychological Well-Being. Landscape Research. 4(1): 17–23.
-----. 1983. Aesthetic and Affective Response to Natural Environment. In Behavior and Natural Environment. Edited by Irwin Altman, and Joachim F. Wohlwill, pp. 85–125. New York: Plenum.
-----. 1993. Biophilia, Biophobia, and Natural Landscapes. In The Biophilia Hypothesis. Edited by S. R. Kellert and E. O. Wilson, pp. 73–137. Washington, DC: Island Press/Shearwater Books.
Xu, Ping. 1990. Feng-Shui: A Model for Landscape Analysis. In Proceedings of the Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA 90), edited by Lois A. Brink, and Peter Schaeffer, pp. 183–193. Washington, DC: Landscape Architecture Foundation.
-----. 1997. Feng-Shui as Clue: Identifying Prehistoric Landscape Setting Patterns in the American Southwest. Landscape Journal.16(2): 174–190.
-----. 1998. Feng Shui Models Structured Traditional Beijing Courtyard Houses. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. 15(4):271–282.
Yang, Ch'ing K'un. 1967. Religion in Chinese Society: A Study of Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and Some of Their Historical Factors. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Yi, Young Kyong. 1992. Affect and Cognition Interface in Aesthetic Experiences of Landscapes. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University. College Station.
Yu, Kongjian. 1992. Experience of Basin Landscapes in Chinese Agriculture Has Let to Ecologically Prudent Engineering. In Human Responsibility and Gobal Change. Edited by Lars O. Hansson, and Britta Jungen, pp. 289–299. Sweden: University of Gothenburg.
-----. 1994. Landscape into Places: Feng Shui Model of Place Making and Some Cross-Cultural Comparisons. In Proceedings of the Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA 94). Edited by James D. Clark. Mississippi: Mississippi State University: 320–340.
Zajonc, Robert B. 1980. Feeling and thinking: preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist. 35(2): 151–175.
~~~~~~~~
By Ke-Tsung Han, Ke-Tsung Han is Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture, Fu Jen Catholic University, Hsinchuang, Taipei Hsien 24205, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Copyright of Journal of Cultural Geography is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
No comments:
Post a Comment