EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
The evolutionary theory of human habitat selection proposes that humans prefer environments in which “exploration is easy and which signal the presence of resources necessary for survival” (Orians and Heerwagen 1992, 557). When people encounter an environment, they respond immediately and unconsciously to its rather general features (Zajonc 1980; Ulrich 1983; Orians and Heerwagen 1992).These features include spatial configurations, depth cues, focal points, ground texture, and the presence of water and vegetation (Ulrich 1983; Orians and Heerwagen 1992; Yi 1992).
SPATIAL CONFIGURATIONS AND DEPTH CUES
Openness is an important spatial configuration (Orians and Heerwagen 1992) because an open environment lacking protective cover will expose its residents to extreme climates and predators, both of which make a site undesirable for human occupation. A restricted view with short visual depth may conceal hidden predators or enemies. These dangers, risks, or uncertainties will inhibit human exploring activities (Appleton 1975; Orians 1980; Ulrich 1983; Yi 1992). Depth cues help people judge the time required to cross open spaces that expose them to potential threats (Orians and Heerwagen 1992). Appleton's prospect-refuge theory (1975) employs similar concepts of depth cues and spatial configurations. This theory states that people prefer locations that provide the opportunity to “see without being seen.” Choosing a prospect that offers a wide and distant view enhances the likelihood of spotting one's predators and enemies. A site should also provide a refuge to hide people from threats and provide protection against hazards.
FOCAL POINTS
People tend to search for focal points immediately after seeing a view because they need to use them as references for further observation and appraisal (Ulrich 1983). Focal points not only attract people's attention but increase the perceived depth of a view as well. Therefore, they can enhance people's ability of observation and consequently increase a sense of security (Appleton 1975; Ulrich 1983; Yi 1992).
GROUND TEXTURE
Ground texture plays two roles in the initial stage of people's responses to environments. First, it helps people to judge how easily they can move in a location (Kaplan et al. 1989). If the ground texture is rough, then getting across it will be difficult and time consuming, lengthening the exposure to potential dangers and threatening people's exploration (Yi 1992). Second, ground texture is highly related to depth perception (Gibson 1958; Goldstein 1996) and grasping three-dimensional relationships among elements (Ulrich 1979).
WATER AND VEGETATION
Water is a necessity of life. Without water no animal or plant can stay alive. For human beings, in addition to drinking, water is also used for cooking, bathing, washing, irrigation, aquaculture, and transportation. Water also helps vegetation grow. In human history, vegetation has been an important resource; it provides people with food, firewood, fiber, building materials, and furniture as well as craft materials. The presence of water and plants offers “useful and reasonably accurate information about the availability of basic resources and safe sites in unfamiliar environments” (Orians and Heerwagen 1992, 564).
INFORMATION GATHERING AND COGNITIVE APPRAISAL
After people immediately and unconsciously respond to the rather general features of the environment and their responses are positive, they will further evaluate the information through cognitive processing (Orians and Heerwagen 1992). Although the second stage of human habitat selection is focused on information gathering and cognitive appraisal, it is still influenced by the unconscious responses in the initial stage (Orians and Heerwagen 1992). An environment which has clearly defined spatial configurations and depth cues will promise people more information about the surroundings and help their cognitive evaluation. This is because features will not be compromised by the background and will stand out showing three-dimensional relationships (Ulrich 1983). An even, uniform, and continued ground texture will provide more depth cues and a sense of continuity which will reduce spatial ambiguities, enhance accurate estimates of spatial extent, and allow more information to be extracted (Ulrich 1983; Yi 1992).
In addition to these environmental features, some others important to this second stage include those that “entice exploration and those that aid the ability to orient in space so that one can return safely to the point where exploration began” (Orians and Heerwagen 1992, 564). Deflected vistas mean that the line of sight in a setting is deflected or curved, “signaling that new landscape information is just beyond the visual bounds defined by the observer's position” (Ulrich 1983, 103). “Way finding and long distance movement in the environment are aided by changes in elevation, or lookouts, from which the environment can be seen as a whole, allowing movements to be planned in advance” (Orians and Heerwagen 1992, 564). Some other features, such as landmarks or indicated connections of different sites, are also helpful for orienting movement (Lynch 1960; Orians and Heerwagen 1992).
Evolutionary theory also suggests that an appropriate habitat should have low risks. The presence of certain environmental features can help people analyze risks. For example, multiple concealment allows risk assessment conducted safely from different angles or distances; changes in elevation provide paramount surveillance of the site; and multiple routes can be used for escape when impending threats are detected. In addition, “a suitable habitat must contain a mixture of patches that provides opportunities for all of the activities required during the time interval that habitat is to be occupied” (Orians and Heerwagen 1992, 565).
PRIMARY COMPARISONNow that Feng Shui and evolutionary theory have been briefly introduced, they can be compared on the basis of environmental features in terms of adaptive significance of human survival.
SPATIAL CONFIGURATIONS AND DEPTH CUES
An ideal Feng Shui location is a closed space surrounded by mountains. It has a clearly defined spatial configuration. Meanwhile, the lower front hills provide a broad field of vision at the front. Actually, it is more appropriate to describe the ideal Feng Shui location as a semi-enclosed space that is surrounded by mountains at the back, on the left, and on the right, and is open at the front. The surrounding and overlapped mountains and hills at the ideal Feng Shui site also provide plentiful depth cues because overlap is an important cue of depth perception (Schiffman 1982). In addition, the concept of prospect-refuge proposed by Appleton (1975) is manifested at the ideal Feng Shui location. The surrounding mountains form a natural defense and a shelter against exposure to cold, northern winds, and detection and attack by enemies. The prospect at the front is helpful for spotting approaching enemies from a great distance.
FOCAL POINTS
Focal points are prominent features, or groupings of features, which create points or sub areas of dominance, catching people's attention (Ulrich 1983). The magnificent mountain, Hsuan Wu, in the background of the ideal Feng Shui location is the foremost obvious focal point. The two slightly lower mountains at the left, Ch'ing Lung, and the right, Pai Hu, can be regarded as secondary focal points. Although the long and wide view at front is not concrete and tangible, its dominance cannot be ignored easily. Within this prospect, the two solid front hills, An Shan and Chao Shan, due to their contrast to the sky, become focal points.
GROUND TEXTURE
Because of the uniform and smooth ground texture of the relatively flat grassland in the center of the ideal Feng Shui location, it is not only easy for movement but also convenient for farming, grazing, and construction. This even-textured ground surface can also help people perceive depth and comprehend the relationships of three-dimensional features (Gibson 1958; Goldstein 1996). The ground texture of the grassland continually extends to the feet of the surrounding mountains. Beyond that, although the ground texture changes to trees, due to a long distance of view, it will still look smooth and uniform (Schiffman 1982). Overall, the character of the textural surface in the ideal Feng Shui site is visually even, smooth, and continuous.
WATER AND VEGETATION
Water is an important indicator of good Feng Shui, because the ancient Chinese believed that Ch'i is accumulated by water. In an idealFeng Shui location, a winding inward river is always present. This river provides multiple services, resources for drinking, washing, bathing, irrigation, aquaculture, as well as fire fighting, and transportation, moats, and air purification, as well as microclimate modification. The flowing river in front makes it difficult for the enemy to advance quickly. It can be used as a safe and quick route to escape from impending threats. It evaporates water to increase humidity, decrease temperature, enhance air circulation, and purify air.Thriving vegetation is another indicator of good Feng Shui. Because Ch'i is the origin of all life, a place where flourishing plants grow signals plenty of Ch'i. Vegetation rich in numbers and species attracts diverse animals, which implies more available resources. An ecosystem with great diversity of flora and fauna indicates a highly stable habitat.
INFORMATION GATHERING AND COGNITIVE APPRAISAL
The folded, overlapping mountains surrounding the ideal Feng Shui location provide many opportunities for seeing deflected or curved vistas. Meanwhile, the winding river perhaps can also deflect people's line of sight. All of these promise more information beyond the viewers' current vantage point and therefore encourage them to explore further. In terms of information gathering, the clearly defined spatial configuration of surrounding mountain ridges, the boundaries between mountains and grassland, and the continued, even-textured ground surface also facilitate the extraction and evaluation of more landscape information. Consequently, people can easily process this information to perceive depth, features in three-dimensional spaces, and spatial extent (Ulrich 1983; Yi 1992).
The noticeable physical features of Feng Shui locations—such as the magnificent mountain in the back, the smaller mountains at the right and left, the rivers, and the front hills—serve as landmarks giving people a good sense of direction and a clearly defined territory.These landscape features, particularly mountains, not only provide lookouts from which the site can be observed as a whole, allowing movements to be planned in advance, they also help travelers measure their positions along the entire path and estimate the distance traversed or yet to go (Lynch 1960). In addition, the river flowing in, through, and out of the Feng Shui site connects the inside and the outside worlds facilitating the orientation of movement and the perception of sequential spaces.
An ideal Feng Shui location surrounded by mountains and rivers not only is a safe, easily defended site but also helps people to analyze risks. The surrounding mountains and thriving vegetation provide concealment, which allows risk assessment conducted from various angles, distances, and elevations. If an impending threat is detected, people will have many choices of escape routes. On the grassland, which has a smooth, even-textured surface and offers wide fields of vision, physical or visual blocks do not impede movement in any direction. The river can also be used as a safe and quick route of exit. In addition, spaces between surrounding mountains provide many escape routes.
An ideal Feng Shui site is also a place rich in diverse spaces. It contains grasslands, rivers, riverbanks, forests, and slopes and peaks of mountains. This mixture of spaces not only nourishes various plants and animals, but also provides opportunities for many activities required by the people occupying it.
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